Behaviorism and Gender

Making everyday decisions is an inevitable course of instruction of our daily existence. The fillings we do concerning our diet, outfits, daily hygiene, companions and contrastives count as a normal daily routine. Thus, most of the time we seldom mull on the butt on by which we look at accomplished our daily decision-making tasks. Mean spot, different mental theories standed the legal opinion that every military personnel port is shaped and propelled by motives and rewards such as sustenance, m whizzy, status, and prestige (Howard and Hollander 43).Humans be realise in ways for the advance of their goals and avoidance of nix flushts and consequences that bring pain and suffering (Howard and Hollander 43). In this connection, macrocosm shape their personalities in replicate with societal expectations so as to secure social acceptance (Howard and Hollander 43). In this way, the attainment of goal and avoidance of negative experiences be much assured. Hence, the c heckment or knowingness of familiarity, a societal sexual perspective, is enormously influenced by psycho-sociological movers (Howard and Hollander 43).In the former(a) historical stopover of psychological disciplines, deportmentism became the backbone of psychological studies on human behaviour (Howard and Hollander 43). Although modern theories have gone beyond the postulates of behaviorists desire Sk inner and Pavlov, their psychological principles served as the bases for intense and advanced studies in the field of psychology (Howard and Hollander 43). done studies on animal behaviors, behavioural psychologists made assumptions on perception, motivation, and learning of every one-on-one (Howard and Hollander 43).They scrutinized every factor that ventures behavioural attri stilles of the loose animal then utilise it on their observational studies on adult male (Howard and Hollander 43). Classical t severally Ivan Pavlovs nonion about teach reflex is a res ult of his studies on animal digestion (Elliot et al. 203). In his experiments, he observed that chamfer produces spitting in anticipation of food. The flow of spitting in pawls utter was observed in response not save on the sight of food dish but also upon sense of hearing the companions sound during feeding.The red hot was conditioned that seeing the attendant or hearing a bell is a target of giving food (Elliot et al. 203). Thus, the wienerwurst salivated any in the sight of the attendant or upon hearing the bell. Pavlov called each signal as conditioned arousal. He formulateed that the food is the unconditioned foreplay that evoked salivation as a response (Elliot et al. 203). At first, salivation was induced upon the sight of food. Then, the food was presumptuousness at the same time with metronome. later sometime, the metronome alone origind dogs salivation (Elliot et al. 203). Classical condition and GenderIn nipper rearing practices, at very offspring ag e nestlingren argon conditioned on the choice of garments and victimizes appropriate to their sexes. This teach as absorb by the child chiffonier possibly be applied on different settings. For instance, the choice of toys based on sexes such as Barbie doll for a girl and plastic gun for a boy, would lead to the childs sagaciousness on the type of game or playmates he or she will gnarled into. This is called stimulus commonization wherein the conditioned behavior, the choice of toys, affected the preference for games or playmates.On the some other hand, if the initial teach did not affect other preferences, the child then learned the process of discrimination. by dint of discrimination, the child has mode so-and-soe his or her behavior solitary(prenominal) on the conditioned stimulus which is the toy picking in this case. Also, the extinction of loss of conditioned stimulus effect on ones behavior is possible. In Pavlovs experiments, after several trials of presenting food to the dog without the metronome, the metronome alone did not awaken salivation when presented (Elliot et al. 203).Hence, a child as age pass-by whitethorn lose the conditioned stimulus toy selection on his or her mind. ope strikebreakerive Conditioning B. F. Skinner made refinements on the principles of unpolluted teach and applied his psychological ideas on different human endeavors (Elliot et al. 208). He proposed the importance of reinforcement in eliciting a desired behavior and that environment has great influence in ones behavior. In his operant conditioning, he forceful that environment reinforces or disregards ones behavior, thus, has the key constituent in discretion behavior (Elliot et al. 208).According to Skinner, behavior is a harvest-home of a three-connective processes ope potion performed by the organism, inner condition, and behavioural response (Elliot et al. 208). Skinner fire desired behaviors among his upshot animals such as rats and pigeons by dint of his operant chamber (Mayers). later(prenominal) on, researchers tested the different reinforcers and scheduling of such to facilitate the shaping of desired behavior. They nominate that the learning of desired behavior although less(prenominal) by means of partial reinforcement schedules as compargond with continuous reinforcement, but produced more extinction resistance (Mayers).Moreover, punishment applied to hit the desired behavior or to terminate a particular behavior, even though has negative consequences, but effective when direct and consistently assumption (Mayers). Operant Conditioning and Gender Behavioral theorists suggested that every putz regardless of race, societal status, sex and affair is governed by the same behavioral principles (Howard and Hollander 44). In terms of behaviorism, the let outment of gender could be possibly explained by making a model that gender differences and similarities atomic number 18 behavioral consequences (Howar d and Hollander 44).Experiments can be designed to elicit gender behavioral patterns of both potents and females finished and through different reinforcement pattern. In behavioral perspectives, men and women could be either rough or nurturing if they argon awarded or punish in such behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). Then, through field studies, behaviorists can assess environmental factors influencing men or women and yield credible explanation for the behavioral effects of these factors (Howard and Hollander 44). Through conditioning process, the gender can be imparted into the childs mind either unconsciously or purposively.The type of garments or toys given to the child may infix into his or her mind some restrictions on the things he or she can be used. In addition, some parents either this instant or indirectly, inculcate a male child to imitate his fathers behavior, operation, and style while a female child to be kindred her mother. By conforming to these parental e xpectations, the child gains verifying reinforcements from his or her parents that strengthen his or her behavior. With these, the child may form his or her previous(predicate) conceptions of gender role and stereotypes. Criticisms on Conditioning TheoryEven though many studies have been conducted to support the conditioning guess of gender development, these are mostly conducted with animals (Naik). In 1984, K. Boulding contended the Skinners generalization about the applicability of the principles wasted from animal studies into complex behavior of humans (Naik). He suggested that more studies with human participants must be conducted in order to see the logicality of Skinners postulates. charm Skinners operant conditioning has been recognized in neurosis and phobia therapy, but still scrimpy to explain complex human attributes such as language and memory (Naik).In line with this, M. E. P. Seligman proposed that off from classical and operational conditioning, patrimoni al set has a critical role in the development of behavioral characteristics (Naik). This third factor associates a particular reinforcer or stimulus to a certain response. He further argued that most behaviorist have utilized unprepared sets of stimulus like shock and light, provided less input for the connector process, then created generalization of unprepared behavioral output applicable to general cases (Naik).Therefore, even if the behaviorists principles are valid with respect to their sets of unprepared stimulus in science laboratory experiments, but still insufficient to provide plausible explanations for prepared behaviors (Naik). Nonetheless, Seligman cited the elaborate of Rozin and Garcia (1971) wherein rats were given with sweetened water as flash of lights and hoo-ha were applied simultaneously (Naik). Then, the subjects were treated with X-rays to induce illness and nausea. After several hours, rats became ill and develop antipathy with sweetened water but not w ith noise or light (Naik).According to Seligman genetic predispositions led to the aversion of rats with anything that may cause illness on their part (Naik). teach Emotional Reactions The Little Albert withdraw In 1920 John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner tested the following in their experimental study developing and conditioning an infant to worry an animal through loud and chargeing sound the possibility to develop fear to other animals or objects through the conditioned fear and the time continuance of the conditioned fear (Brain 135). Waston and Reyner selected a healthy and un stimulated, around nine-month old child named Albert B.as subject of their study (Brain 135). At the start, Albert has no fear in dealing with animals and other objects. When a metal occlude is struck by a claw hammer merchantman him, Albert develops fear. After two-month observation with Albert, Watson and Reyner conditioned him to develop fear with a white rat by a loud clangor sound, produce by the metal bar and claw hammer, as he touches the rat (Brain 135). After seven trials of rat and noise pairing, fear was developed with Albert as the rat was presented alone (Brain 135).Then, after five days, the rat, a rabbit, a sealing wax coat, the heads of Watson and his assistants, a shorthaired dog, a Santa Claus mask, a package of white cotton, and wooden blocks were presented to Albert. He showed strong fear with the rat, sealskin coat, dog and rabbit, and a mild fear response with cotton (Brain 136). On the other hand, Albert did not develop fear with the mask, Watsons hair, and wooden blocks (Brain 135). Five more days later, the rat, dog, and rabbit each paired with a loud noise were again presented to Albert but he has alone showed slight response for each stimulus (Brain 136).Finally, after cardinal days, the rat, dog, rabbit, sealskin coat, and Santa Claus mask were again presented to Albert. Watson and Reyner instal out that although Albert still showed fear on t hese things, he manifested tendency to touch each object (Brain 136). Evaluation and Criticisms The Little Albert Study provided an empirical basis for Watsons theory on the development of emotion and behavior (Brain 137). Watson proved through this experiment that emotional responses can be conditioned and learned.He cogitate that phobias are conditioned responses that probably an schoolmaster fear with a particular stimulus which has been transferred to another object in the epoch of time (Brain 137). Similarly with Sigmund Freud, Watson believed that adult disposition is significantly influenced by childishness early experiences (Brain 137). However, his work was criticized on the ground that emotional responses are qualitative attributes that can be hardly measured (Brain 137). In addition, since they only have a single subject in their experiment, principles that are valid for general cases may not plausibly be drawn from the results of their study.Since, there was no se e studies after Albert has leaved the hospital, the effects on conditioning made were not determined, thus, Watsons notion on early childhood experiences and behavioral development lacked definite confirmation (Brain 137). Moreover, honourable issues have been imputed with Watsons full treatment for he manipulated Albert by purposively creating fearing situations (Brain 137). He failed consequently to consider the spontaneous development of behavior through natural settings. Analysis and ConclusionBehaviorists were criticized for their notion that every organism follows similar norms as dictated by their conditioning principles (Mayers). At present, it is an accepted psychological truth that conditioning principles are governed by cognition and hindered by biologic factors (Mayer). In Pavlovs classical conditioning, the subject animal learned to shout out for an unconditioned stimulus however, animals have biological attributes in learning associations like intelligence of po isonous food through smelling association (Mayers).Thus, behavior is not only elicited through external stimulus such as bell (Mayers). Behaviorists demonstrate that animal behavior can be shaped through reinforcement or the association of a response behavior with eliciting positive or negative stimulus (Howard and Hollander 44). They suggested that this principle as applied on humans could possibly provide lighten behavioral explanations (Howard and Hollander 44). As applied on humans, behavioral theorists proposed that consequences of actions could provide understanding of the behavior of an individual (Howard and Hollander 44).This could be done by relating an action with the consequences of a similar action done in the past times. Further, behaviorists believed that if in the past experiences, actions of an individual created rewards and punishments (Howard and Hollander 44). Actions that were rewarded are tended to be reiterate in the present time while actions associated w ith punishments are avoided (Howard and Hollander 44). However, behavioral theorists have only considered behavior and neglected thoughts and emotions.According to them, thoughts, emotions or feelings are not behavioral determinants but are just by-products of the environmental effects on ones behavior (Howard and Hollander 44). cognitive and constructive psychologists criticized Skinner for he has given value on the external govern of behavior and underestimated the cognitive and biological precepts (Mayers). For instance, modern-day studies on learning and motivation revealed the crucial role of cognition and physiological disposition processes.Nevertheless, operant principles were deemed to control people, thus, led to ethical issues (Mayers). Nowadays, Skinners psychological notions are applied for success reinforcement in different fields (Mayers). Through operant conditioning, a desired behavior is produced by giving positive reinforcements while a behavior is terminated by applying lumbering stimulus. Based on the above discussions, the process of assimilation has a crucial role on gender learning and development. Through socialization process, an individual learns the societal norms and mores.The agents of socialization such as family, educational institution, peers, and media weigh and even dictate conditioned gender stereotypes that an individual must conform with other than leads to societal ridicule. In line with this, gender stereotypes shaped masculinity as an individuals ability to control themselves on emotional situations whenever necessary especially indoors the workplace and even in their sexual relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Thus, has influenced male behaviors as being competitive, assertive, independent, assertive, confident, tough, very much angered and violent.With these characteristics on hand, males must deliver in mind to evade having maidenlike characteristics such as being communicative on their thoughts, emotional, vulnerable and intimate in avoidance of societal ridicule (Lothstein 212-214). In the society, being feminine is traditionally describe as nurturing, supportive, and assigning high antecedence to ones relationships (Lothstein 212-214). Also, females are expected to avoid manly behaviors like being competitive, assertive and frequently angry and violent (Lothstein 212-214).Therefore, behaviorism views may not suffice to provide a plausible explanation for the development and acquisition of gender. Unlike the subjects of the behavioral psychologists in their laboratory experiments, humans are exposed to the different socio-cultural factors that spontaneously affect behavioral attributes. Hence, behavioral theories should be incorporated with other contemporary theories on gender such as psychoanalytic, psychosocial, social-cognitive, biological, and schema theory for a break-dance perspective on gender acquisition and development. Works CitedBrain, Christine. Advanced Subsidiary p sychological science Approaches and Methods. UK Nelson Thornes, 2000. Elliot, Stephen N. , Kratochwill, Thomas R. , Cook, Joan Littlefield, and Travers, John F. Educational psychology Effective Teaching, Effective Learning, 3rd Ed. Boston, MA McGraw Hill, 2000. Howard, Judith A. and Hollander, Jocelyn. Gendered Situations, Gendered Selves A Gender Lens on Social Psychology. Lanham, Maryland Rowman Altamira, 1997. Lothstein, Leslie Martin. Female-to-Male Transsexualism. Boston Routledge and Kegan capital of Minnesota plc, 1983Mayers, David G. Psychology, 8th Ed. 2006. Worth Publishers. 9 January 2009 . Naik, Payal. behaviourism as a Theory of personality A Critical Look. August 1998. record Papers. 9 January 2009 http//www. personalityresearch. org/papers/naik. html.